西欧

This divergence between the urban burgher society and the feudal state has prepared the social and material conditions and institutional basis necessary for the modern nation state.

西欧城市市民社会同封建政治国家的分立，从社会结构与力量的意义上为近代西欧民族国家的确立和发展，提供了必要的社会物质条件和组织基础。

The monastical economy boom not only improved the development of commodity economy and the rise of the city, but also accelerated the process of the christianization in the country and founded the basis of such businesses as books, education, architecture, and so on.

10-13世纪，西欧修道院经济的繁荣促进商品经济的发展、城市的兴起和文化教育的进步，为西欧经济和文化复兴及社会稳定作出贡献。

China as well as commences building her national figure beneath exotic force, much differentiae during this process is exposed between China and Europe ,so probing into the foundation of colony and semi-colony countries and comparing the differentiae between two conformation indeed,plays a instructional role to the development of China .

近代的中国在外来势力的裹挟下也开始了民族国家的塑造进程，这一进程与西欧近代民族国家的形成过程有很多的差异，探究殖民地半殖民地国家近代民族的形成，比较中国与西欧在近代形成民族国家的差异，对我国的现实发展也有重要的指导意义。

Schuman Plan and the European Coal and Steel Treaty Organization are the beginning of integration in West Europe.

舒曼计划》、欧洲煤钢条约组织是西欧一体化进程的发端，从这个计划与组织的发展、演变中，我们可看出早期西欧一体化进程的主要特点：1 。

The body has 2 sections , the first of which reaches into the Christianity" s influence upon the transformation of Western Europe to feudal society : In the early middle ages Western Europe , Christianity together with the traditional ruling class , had reunified the political power of Roman empire with the help of "Divine Right to govern";In the meanwhile , it had contributed to the ethnic unity of the Roman races and the feudalization of Western Europe ; while the other section deals with the Christianity" s impact upon the transformation of Western Europe to capitalism : in the Late Middle Ages , Western Europe , with the emergence of cities , some social changes had taken place .

正文又分为两个部分：Ⅰ。基督教在西欧向封建社会转型中的作用：在西欧中世纪早期，基督教不仅为日尔曼人的统治提供了一套完备的思想理论体系，而且为孕育于两种不同背景下文化的融合搭起了桥梁，并在此基础上促成了西欧封建制的最终形成。Ⅱ。基督教在西欧向资本主义社会转型中的作用：中世纪后期，随着城市的兴起，西欧社会发生了一系列变化。

The introduction first briefly reviews Western Europe\'s universal order of "recht" in middle ages: As independent political units, the city, the manor, the church parish, the ligeance and so on were set in a rank order, the relations between each rank were established in legal form, empire represented the highest rank, and simultaneously played an arbitrator\'s role, was the arbitrator of political units subordinated to the emperor. All of these ranks were placed in natural order created by God, thus, the Christianity religious doctrine had provided the final validity for the universal legal orders; then the symbiotic of the political evolution and the legal transformation will be discussed. Western jurisprudence resided in the Church during the middle Ages, after entering into modern era, resorted to the state."State" instead of "empire" became the basic concept of modem law, and new order of "recht" was bound to make legitimate argumentation for the nation; finally, the background and sketches of this article is explained. It will trace and analyze intrinsic evolution of the idea of legal order in the background of concrete politics--especially the geopolitics, inspects how the different nation-states split up from universal Christianly world and obtain their independence, inspecting differences of respective national path, the fit or unfit quality and the success or failure in this process.

导论首先简要回顾西欧中世纪大一统的法权秩序：作为独立政治单元的各城市、庄园、教区、领地等被镶嵌在一个等级秩序中，各个等级之间以法律的形式来确立相互之间的关系，帝国代表最高等级，同时扮演仲裁人的角色，是臣属其下的各个政治单元之间的仲裁者，而帝国等级又被安置在上帝创造的自然秩序中，因而，是基督教教义为大一统的法权秩序提供了最终的合法性；接着指出西欧政治演变与法权变革的共生性：西方法学在中世纪寄身于教会之中，进入近代以后则投靠了国家，"国家"代替"帝国"，成为近代法学构造的基本概念，新的法权秩序必然围绕民族国家展开；最后说明本文的论述方式和基本思路：本文将在具体的政治——特别是地缘政治——的背景中，追踪和解析法权观念的内在演变，由此进一步****不同民族国家内、异质的法权秩序如何从过去大一统的世界中分化剥离并获得独立，并试图检讨这一过程中不同民族道路的差异、优劣和得失。

At that time, Europe was weak and disunited, and for more than half a century Magyar bands raided Bavaria, Moravia, Italy, Constantinople, and lands as far away as the Pyrenees.

但这个时候的西欧也处于衰弱和分裂之中，因此，西欧经受了半个多世纪的马扎尔人团体的侵略。

It became the special relationship between the Seigneur and the Aristocrat on the basis of land ownership.

封君封臣制是西欧封建主义土地所有制的表现形式，它形成了西欧封建各国的国王与贵族之间以土地关系为依托的独特的封君封臣关系，为封建贵族的分裂割据奠定了基础。

Characteristics of the development of commodity economy in the feudal Chinese society have remained an important issuein the study of commodity economy history.,the explora-tion of the characteristics of the development of the commodi-ty economy in the feudal Chinese society must first depend on a complete description of the situation of its own rather thanjust a simple comparison between the feudal Chinese landlord system and the Western European suzerain system.

封建商品的特点是商品经济史中一个首要的重大。对这个问题的认识应以对其本身的研究为基础，而不能将中国的封建地主制与西欧的封建领主制作简单对比。中国封建社会商品经济的特殊性主要表现在：它的发展经历了三个高峰，并形成了多层次和多元化发展封建商品的特点是商品经济史中一个首要的重大。对这个问题的认识应以对其本身的研究为基础，而不能将中国的封建地主制与西欧的封建领主制作简单对比。

The thesis probes into Schoenberg' thinkings about music history, music nationalism, music education, music criticism, and music creation, respectively. There are some important viewpoints in Schoenberg's music thought: Firstly, Schoenberg's ideas of music history, he believes relationship of tradition and revolution in art is dialectical in nature, and argues that evolution in music was determined by natural law, obviously influenced by Hegel's philosophical history idea. Secondly, the thesis sums up his viewpoints of music nationalism, such as "lay stress on art music, look down on folk music","lay stress on western European music, look down on non- western European music" by Schoenberg's account about the reasons of the formation of national art, the dominant of national art and nationality in music; in fact, this viewpoint of western cultural centricity is one of his i mportant viewpoints throughout his life; Thirdly, Schoenberg's concept of music education: in his thought a composing teacher should teach the students how to master "the tool of art", train them for their ability of "one major and various kinds of techniques", try his best to nourish the student's personality; Fourthly, Schoenberg set forth some opinions about modern music critics and the method of music criticism: a music critic must be equipped with the quality of a music expert, and render composer's idea to the public by his art imagination, but not his personal opinion,and Schoenberg stress the areas of music criticism on style and idea ; Lastly, Schoenberg's concept of music creation: Expressionism and organism are two important issues in Schoenberg's thinking about music creation.

本文通过对勋伯格各类论文、书信、演讲、专著等文稿的评述，分别探讨了作为音乐思想家的勋柏格的音乐历史观、民族主义音乐观、音乐教育观、音乐批评观与音乐刨作观，并在此基础上总结了折射在勋柏格音乐思想中的几个重要观点：一，勋柏格对于音乐历史的认识：通过德奥音乐界前辈给予他的创作启示，以及勋伯格对自己几个创作阶段的发展历程的总结，阐述了他对于艺术中的传统与革新之间的关系的辩证认识，并通过这些问题总结出音乐的演进与黑格尔倡导的&历史发展必然性&哲学观念之间存在着必然联系；二，勋柏格的民族主义音乐观：通过勋柏格对于形成民族艺术特征的根本原因、民族艺术中的支配现象、民间音乐与艺术音乐之间的比较、音乐刨作中的&民族性&问题的意识等方面问题的剖析与认识，总结了他的&重艺术音乐，轻民间音乐&、&重西欧音乐，轻非西欧音乐&的观点，从而突出了他的精神领域中的根深蒂固的&德奥音乐中心论&，这是一个浸润着浓厚的西欧文化中心论色彩的观点，也是贯串他毕生的音乐思想的重要观点之一；三，勋柏格对音乐教育问题的见解：勋柏格认为作曲教师应该教会学生掌握&艺术的工具&、在教学中努力做到&一专多能&、注重个性培养；四，勋柏格对当代音乐批评家与音乐批评方法提出的要求：音乐批评家必须具备作为一名音乐家的专业修养，要以真实、客观的态度对待音乐批评这门神圣的职业，充分运用内心的艺术联想向公众再现作曲家的意图，而不是将个人见解强加于受众；同时，批评家需要对艺术的过去与未来拥有全面的了解与较准确的预测，在音乐批评的具体范畴中，应将重心角度置于探讨音乐作品的风格与思想之间的关系方面。

The split between the two groups can hardly be papered over.

这两个团体间的分歧难以掩饰。

This approach not only encourages a greater number of responses, but minimizes the likelihood of stale groupthink.

这种做法不仅鼓励了更多的反应，而且减少跟风的可能性。