联邦制度

In America, claim joinder arises out of the rules governing joinder of claims in common law and equity law, and develops to the present Federation Rules of Civil Procedure through the times of common law and Field code.

美国民事诉讼请求合并起源于普通法和衡平法中的合并规则，经过普通法时代、菲尔德法典时代，发展到现行《联邦民事诉讼规则》中的诉讼合并制度。

To cherish peace and friendly intercourse with all nations having correspondent dispositions; to maintain sincere neutrality toward belligerent nations; to prefer in all cases amicable discussion and reasonable accommodation of differences to a decision of them by an appeal to arms; to exclude foreign intrigues and foreign partialities, so degrading to all countries and so baneful to free ones; to foster a spirit of independence too just to invade the rights of others, too proud to surrender our own, too liberal to indulge unworthy prejudices ourselves and too elevated not to look down upon them in others; to hold the union of the States as the basis of their peace and happiness; to support the Constitution, which is the cement of the Union, as well in its limitations as in its authorities; to respect the rights and authorities reserved to the States and to the people as equally incorporated with and essential to the success of the general system; to avoid the slightest interference with the right of conscience or the functions of religion, so wisely exempted from civil jurisdiction; to preserve in their full energy the other salutary provisions in behalf of private and personal rights, and of the freedom of the press; to observe economy in public expenditures; to liberate the public resources by an honorable discharge of the public debts; to keep within the requisite limits a standing military force, always remembering that an armed and trained militia is the firmest bulwark of republics——that without standing armies their liberty can never be in danger, nor with large ones safe; to promote by authorized means improvements friendly to agriculture, to manufactures, and to external as well as internal commerce; to favor in like manner the advancement of science and the diffusion of information as the best aliment to true liberty; to carry on the benevolent plans which have been so meritoriously applied to the conversion of our aboriginal neighbors from the degradation and wretchedness of savage life to a participation of the improvements of which the human mind and manners are susceptible in a civilized state——as far as sentiments and intentions such as these can aid the fulfillment of my duty, they will be a resource which can not fail me.

我认为应珍视与所有志同道合的国家的和平相处和友好往来；对所有交战国则保持真诚的中立；在任何情况下，对分歧都应采取友善的协商和理智的调停，而不能诉诸武力加以解决；来自国外的种种阴谋诡计和对外国的偏袒不公，对任何国家来说都是卑下可鄙的，对自由国家则更是危害非浅，故应予以摒弃；要培育一种独立的精神，这种精神非常公正而不会侵犯他人的权利，非常自尊而不会放弃我们自己的权利，非常开明而不耽溺于我们自己毫无价值的偏见，非常高尚而必然鄙弃他人抱有的偏见；要把各州的团结作为我们和平与幸福的基础；要拥护作为联邦凝聚剂的宪法，不仅维护它的权威，而且遵从它的限制；要尊重保留给各州和保留给人民的各项权利和权力，这对整个制度的成功同样休戚相关和不可或缺；信仰的权利和总价的功能已然明智地排除在民事管辖的范围之外，故应避免加以丝毫的干涉；要维护旨在保障私人权利、人身权利和出版自由的其他有益规定的全部活力；政府开支要厉行节约；要通过光荣地清偿公债以调动公共资源；要把常备军事力量控制在必要的限度以内，应时刻牢记，一支训练有素的武装民兵便是所有共和国最坚强的堡垒，没有常备军，他们的自由决不至于陷入危险的境地，而庞大的武装则未必意味着安全；要采用合法的手段推动有利于农业制造业和国内外贸易的各项改进措施；要以同样方式支持科学的进步和知识的传播，此乃真正自由的最佳养份；要继续执行慈善计划，这些计划一直都在值得称道地实施，以改造我们的土著邻居，使他们摆脱野蛮生活的堕落和不幸，得以分享文明状态下人们在心灵和举止上所惯有的各种改善成果。以上种种想法和打算，只要有助于我完成使命，便是不会令我失望的一个源泉。

American constitutional lawsuit pokey has reflected the notion of check and balance of power and has realized a dynamic check and balance of power through the practice of judicial activism or judicial restraint in the process of constitutional lawsuit in American courts.especially the Supreme Court.

美国的宪法诉讼制度实现了权力制衡的宪政理念，并通过法院尤其是联邦最高法院在宪法诉讼过程中采取司法能动主义或司法节制的立场实现了权力的动态制衡，使宪法诉讼成为权力制衡的一种有效和有力的手段。

Indeed, it is to protect the interest of minority and the federal constitutionalism instead of pursuing the pure democracy.

但选举团制度的宪政精神在于自由民主，保障少数人权利的共和主义而非单纯民主，因此其更符合美国的联邦体制和立国精神。

Indeed, it is better to protect the interest of minority and the federal constitutionalism instead of pursuing the pure democracy.

但选举团制度的宪政精神在于********，保障少数人权利的共和主义而非单纯民主，因此其更符合美国的联邦体制和立国精神。

The legislators enacting the recommence administrative procedure in the administrative procedure law that Taiwan began to implement in 2001 had consulted the article 48, 49, and 51 of the administrative procedure law of Germany.

我国在2001年开始实施的行政程序法中，参考了德国联邦行政程序法第48条、第49条及第51条等规定，植入了行政程序重开的制度。

Case law rule allows unilateral withdrawals of inadvertently erroneous bids from the bidder. U.S. federal procurement system, deriving from contracting law, permits bid correction or withdrawal before award and reformation or rescindment after award under certain circumstances.

於美国契约法下，判例上即允许投标厂商有主张单方计算错误而撤销契约，而美国联邦采购制度主要之规定均系依循美国契约法而来，亦在一定要件下允许厂商於决标前可更正投标或撤销投标；於决标后，亦可重新形成契约或撤销契约。

To adjust to new political system and new financial operation, Russian government had great revolution or advanced educational system.

为了与新的政治制度和新的经济运行体制相适应，俄罗斯联邦政府对其高等教育体制的运行进行了多方面的重大的改革。

"Cash for Clunkers", or the Car Allowance Rebate System was a $3 billion US federal scrappage program to allow US residents to trade in older cars for newer, more fuel-efficient models.

"现金为Clunkers"，或汽车津贴退税制度是30亿美元的美国联邦scrappage计划，使美国居民在旧汽车贸易新的，更省油的机型。

Today's European Union is well on its way to becoming a federal superstate, complete with one currency, one legal system, one military, one police force – even its own national anthem.

今天的欧洲联盟，以及就其方法，成为一个联邦超级大国，完成与一种货币，一个法律制度，军事，一警察部队-即使是自己的国歌。

The split between the two groups can hardly be papered over.

这两个团体间的分歧难以掩饰。

This approach not only encourages a greater number of responses, but minimizes the likelihood of stale groupthink.

这种做法不仅鼓励了更多的反应，而且减少跟风的可能性。