牦牛

The body size and weight of crossbred and domestic yaks at birth,6 mo.,18 mo.,and 28 mo.were recorded in the slaughter experiment.

文章以野牦牛和家牦牛杂交后代为研究对象，分别测定了杂种牦牛和家牦牛公牛初生重、6月龄、18月龄、28月龄体重和体尺，同时进行了屠宰试验。

Nine Chinese yak breeds (Maiwa, Tianzhu White, Qinghai Plateau, Sibu, Zhongdian, Pali, Tibetan High Mountain, Jiulong and Xinjiang) and Gayal were analysed by means of 16 microsatellite markers to determine the level of genetic variation within populations as well as genetic relationship between populations and population structure for each of the breed.

本研究通过16个微卫星标记分析了我国9个牦牛品种（麦洼牦牛、天祝白牦牛、青海高原牦牛、斯布牦牛、中甸牦牛、帕里牦牛、西藏高山牦牛、九龙牦牛和新疆牦牛）和大额牛的品种内遗传变异、品种间遗传关系及其群体结构。

The Gayal separated the yaks far away and formed one cluster and 9 yak breeds grouped together. Analysis of population structure for 9 yak breeds shows that there inferred three clusters, one cluster includes yaks in Tibet Autonomous Region and Qinghai Province, the other cluster combines Zhongdian, Maiwa and Tianzhu White, and Jiulong and Xinjiang come into the third cluster.

进一步分析9个牦牛和大额牛的群体结构发现：10个种群可分为4个亚群体，一类是青藏高原的牦牛，一类包括中甸牦牛、麦洼牦牛和天祝白牦牛，第三类包括九龙牦牛和新疆牦牛；帕里牦牛主要分布在第一亚群体中，占90%，九龙牦牛主要分布在第二亚群体中，占87.1%，中甸牦牛主要分布在第三亚群体中，占83%，其他品种分布在2至3个亚群体中；大额牛独立分布在第四群体中，占99.3%。

Some taboos and sacrifices concerning yak totems; the decline of tokenism and the collective unconsciousness; and the analysis made from the total theory perspective,we can surmise that the yak must have been regarded as a totem to the early Tibetans in a certain time and in certain areas.

并且，从对牦牛的崇高地位、部分藏区至今残留的牦牛图腾遗存、具体史实、与图腾相关的禁忌和祭祀、图腾衰落的原因和集体无意识以及纯理论等分析中都可以看出，在古代一定时期的一定地域里牦牛曾作为藏族先民的图腾存在过。

H6 heliotype did not found in Nanyang cattle and Luxi cattle. 5 Yellow cattle and yak had different allele in UMN0307 locus, so this locus could be used to differentiate yellow cattle and yak. We did not find yak's allele in yellow cattle populations, which indicated that there was not yak male origin in these 4 populations.

UMN0307 位点在牦牛和普通牛、瘤牛有不同的等位基因，可以用于牦牛和瘤牛、普通牛的分离鉴定；在本实验研究个体中，没有在黄牛中发现和牦牛相同的等位基因，表明至少在这四个群体所检测个体中，没有发现牦牛的父系起源。

In this text, comparing the yak with other genus of Bovinae on paleontology evidence, morphologic character, blood protein polymorphism, microsatellite polymorphism, mtDNA sequence variance, rDNA RFLP data and sequence information of function gene, we find that the yak shows difference in Bos taurus, Bos indicus but close with Bison bison either in paleontology evidence, morphologic character or molecular biology character. So it was better to be considered as one independent genus Poephagus than to subgenus Poephagus or a species of Bos.

本文通过对牦牛与牛亚科其他属在古生物学证据、形态学特征、血液蛋白多态性、微卫星多态性、mtDNA序列变异、rDNA的RFLP数据和功能基因序列信息等各方面研究资料的比较分析，发现牦牛无论在古生物学证据、形态学特征，还是在分子生物学特征上均表现出与牛属中的普通牛Bos taurus、瘤牛Bos indicus不同，而与美洲野牛Bison bison的亲缘关系更近一些，因此将牦牛划分为牛亚科中1个独立属，似乎比将牦牛作为牛属中的1个亚属或1个种更合适。

Milking yield and milk fat percentage were measured for one fourth wild,semiwild and domestic yak for 120 days.

对1／4野血牦牛、1／2野血牦牛和家牦牛的初产牛进行120天的产奶量和乳脂率测定。

The daily milking yield of one fourth wild,semiwild and domestic yak were 0.94±0.22kg,1.05±0.18kg,0.11±0.10kg respectively,while the milk fat percentage were 6.29%,5.6% and 6.24%.

结果：日均挤乳量，1／4野血牦牛为0.94±0.22kg，1／2野血牦牛为1.05±0.18kg，家牦牛为0.11±0.10kg；乳脂率，1／4野血牦牛为6.29％，1／2野血牦牛为5.6％，家牦牛为6.24％。

The pleural superficial, subpleural and parenchymal vacular networks were denser, and the range of the microvessels in diameter were larger, and the proceeding distance of the subpleural arteriole and its branches were longer in the adult yak lung than those in the adult cattle lung. However, the anastomosing between the pleural superficial and the subpleural vascular networks were more often found in the adult cattle lung than that in the adult yak.

成年牦牛肺胸膜面浅层的微血管网、胸膜下微血管网以及肺实质内的微血管网比成年黄牛致密；成年牦牛肺微血管的管径范围比黄牛的大；成年牦牛肺胸膜下微动脉及其分支的走行路径比成年黄牛的长；而成年黄牛肺胸膜面浅层的微血管与胸膜下微血管之间的吻合比成年牦牛更为常见。

Distribution,ecological types and population abundance of the wild yark in China are discussed according to field investigation and literature review in this paper.the amount of wild yark population size is estimated about 20000-40000 heads.

野牦牛仅分布于青藏高原4500米以上的高山寒漠，数量约2—4万头。野牦牛和家牦牛属于同种动物，论述了野牦牛的两个生态类型，祁连山型和昆仑山型。

The split between the two groups can hardly be papered over.

这两个团体间的分歧难以掩饰。

This approach not only encourages a greater number of responses, but minimizes the likelihood of stale groupthink.

这种做法不仅鼓励了更多的反应，而且减少跟风的可能性。