政治

In their exercise of power, the primary task of modern nation-states is to transform "people" into politically, culturally and volitionally bounded "citizens," so that the state, instead of the "ruler," will be regarded by the ruled as the object of loyalty, and supportive forces that uphold from below the identity of political communities will occur.

现代民族国家的政治权力之遂行，首要工作乃是将「人」打造成有政治边界、文化边界与意志边界的「公民」，以使被统治者政治效忠的对象由「统治者」转变为「国家」，并且产生具有再生产性质由下而上支撑政治共同体同一性的支持力量。

The ideologists studied the theory of modern constitution and polity, condemned the autarchic system, and suggested various ideas in reforming the unreasonable political system. The ideas included political reformation approaches and political structure reformation directions.

思想家们对近代国体、政体等理论进行了研究，谴责和否定了专制政治制度，提出了改革不合理的政治制度的各类思想，包括政治改革步骤和政治体制改革方向的不同主张。

It is the kern and requirement to increase chances for the citizens to participate in politics in perfecting the socialistic democracy system construction is the basis of the increase in citizens ' participation in politics the major premise is to increase citizens ' awareness of participating the citizenly society is the carrier and stage of the participation .

扩大公民的政治参与是坚持和完善社会主义民主制度的核心内容和必然要求，制度建设是扩大公民政治参与的根本保证；公民意识的提高是扩大公民政治参与的前提；公民社会是扩大公民政治参与的载体和舞台。

The social level structure is defined from its basic conception, in-depth meaning and characteristics. The term refers to a functional being and social reality, a unity of physical space and value space as well as connectional and theoretical existence. Viewed from the perspective of political philosophy, the social level structure is a political sovereignty grading or ladder in a state who values the supremacy of sovereignty, penetrating into economic, cultural and social fields, universally forming social relationship. Based on general social structure, social system and political sovereignty, the social level structure is an abstractly summary of social hierarchy which is neither a copy of political structure nor simply addition of economic, cultural and social structure. The social level structure is long hidden but universally existing, deeply affecting and shaping social system, people's life and thinking. Based on the above, the thesis probes the social foundation, evolutional law, fundamental quality, running mechanism, historical function, current significant and the reform necessity.

从社会层级结构概念的基本规定、深层意蕴和性状表现三个方面界定社会层级结构概念，认为社会层级结构既是一种实体性存在和社会现实，也是一种观念性存在和理论构造，是物理空间和意义空间的统一；从政治哲学视野，社会层级结构是在政治国家内部按照权力至上的方式形成的权力级别或权力阶梯，并渗透到经济、文化、社会领域，形成具有普遍性的社会关系体系；它以总体社会结构为依托，以社会制度为外化，以政治权力为中轴；它既不是政治结构的翻版，不是社会阶层结构的别名，也不是经济、文化、社会结构的简单叠加，而是对它们层级性的一种抽象和概括；这种结构长期隐而不显，但却无处不在、无时不有，深深地影响和牢牢地控制着社会制度、人的生活和人的思维方式。

2In the period of planned economy, the three-stage of developmental phases of political culture determined the three-stage of developmental phases of scientific and technical system: the centralized political culture brought the absolute magisterial status of state scientific research institution in installation of organizational institutions, the flexuous development of political culture brought the scientific and technological system into chaos, the rational return of political culture promoted to resume and reconstruct scientific and technological system.

2计划经济时期政治文化发展的三阶段决定了科技体制发展的三阶段：高度中央集权的政治文化带来国有科研机构在科技体制组织体系设置中的绝对主导地位、政治文化的曲折发展带来科技体制的混乱、政治文化的理性回归促进科技体制的恢复与重建。

In accordance with Hannah Arendt's political idea, the calamity of literary knowledge production is not owing to its being "political," but rather owing to its being impolitical under the appearance of "being political," owing to its lack of publicity, which regards difference and plurality as its premise, which real political practice needs.

依照阿伦特的政治观，极&左&时期文艺学知识生产的灾难不能泛泛地归结为&政治&化，而恰恰是它在&政治&化外表下的非政治化，在于它缺乏真正的政治实践所需要的公共性－这种公共性是以差异性与多元性为前提的。

For a quite long period of time, it has become the main tradition in American politics with the rapid economic development in America in the late 19th century. The weak government power caused by the liberalistic politics could not adapt itself to the new social reality, and the American politics was faced with crisis during this period....

随着19世纪后期美国经济的迅速发展，自由主义政治所导致的政府权力弱小已无法适应新的社会现实，这一时期美国政治面临巨大的危机。19世纪末20世纪初美国进步主义运动把加强政府权力作为其政治改革的主要内容，美国政治由自由主义逐渐走向国家主义。

While no doubt such political strength can be set back in given localities through political counteroffensives of capitalist groups, it is also true that the long-run "democratization" of the political machineries throughout the history of the modern world-system have served to make the curveof the political strength of the working classes an upward one over the longue durée in virtually all states in the world-system.

虽然这种政治势力在特定地域里，无疑会遭受资本家集团的政治反击而撤退，但是现代世界体系的整个历史里，政治机构的长期「民主化」，确实让劳工阶级的政治势力曲线，在世界体系的几乎所有国家里，就长期而言都在上升。

The cabinet resigned four times between 1998 and 1999 and the president was impeached by the Russian State Duma in 1999. This confirms that Russian politicians, parties, and government organizations have not tried to obtain political power through nondemocratic procedures in oder to establish a non-democratic regime. Therefore constitutionalism has been built and reflected in both the constitution as well as in the practical operation of politics. This phenomenon is very helpful for the democratic consolidation of Russia.

九八年和九九年四次撤换内阁的宪政风波以及九九年年中弹劾总统的宪危机，皆证实了俄国的政治人物、政党或政府组统，并没有以非民主的程序来获取政治权力，试图建立非民主的政权，所以宪政主义在俄国已经逐渐确立，并且也已反映在宪法与实际的政治运作上，这对於俄罗斯民主政治的巩固发展，有著莫大的助益。

This section will present the opinions and measures to enhance the recognition of strengthening the political ideology education in the employment guidance for the college graduates,to further plentify its content,to continuously reinforce the creation and innovation of the educational method and to further optimize the environment for the education .

通过对毕业生就业指导中思想政治教育现状的研究，本部分提出了提高对加强高校毕业生思想政治教育的认识，进一步充实高校毕业生思想政治教育的内容，不断加强高校毕业生思想教育方法的创新，进一步优化高校毕业生思想政治教育的环境的现点和措施。

The split between the two groups can hardly be papered over.

这两个团体间的分歧难以掩饰。

This approach not only encourages a greater number of responses, but minimizes the likelihood of stale groupthink.

这种做法不仅鼓励了更多的反应，而且减少跟风的可能性。