共生

More than 80% terrestrial plants form mutualistic mycorrhizal symbionts with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which change the competitive interaction between plants and mediate their coexistence.

地球上80％以上的陆生植物都可与丛枝菌根真菌(arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi，AMF)形成菌根共生体，菌根可以改变植物之间的竞争关系、调节植物共存。

Firstly, an invasive species must be invasive enough in itself or has some biological distinction, such as quantitative and qualitative differences in the genome, or patterns of recombination. Secondly, to invade successfully, a new environment for an invasive species must be invasible, and this we may call the ecological basis of invasion. An invasive species may need to establish new interactions with other species, especially those mutualistic relations such as animal related pollination, seed dispersal by animals, mycorrhizal fungi, and symbioses between plants and nitrogen fixing bacteria.

首先从其自身来说，需要有足够的入侵性，这可以认为是入侵种的生物学基础，可能表现为具有多倍性、一定的遗传变异、杂合性或表型可塑性，以及不同的交配系统等；其次一个物种的入侵成功还取决于入侵生境的可入侵性，这可以认为是入侵种的生态学基础，而新的种间关系的形成，尤其是入侵种与其他种类的互惠共生关系的建成是关键。

Fig/fig pollinator mutualistic systems are exploited by non-pollinating fig wasps.

榕树与传粉榕小蜂的互惠共生体系被多种非传粉榕小蜂利用。

The purpose of storing dung underground is to provide food for the beetle larvae which, unlike the adult beetles, have strong, hardened mandibles and, with the aid of mutualistic cellulose-digesting bacteria in the gut, are capable of dealing with the plant fibres which constitute much of

它们与成虫不同，拥有强而有力硬化的颚，加上内脏中有互利共生可消化纤维素的细菌相助，因而有能力处理粪便内占大部分的植物纤维。

The purpose of storing dung underground is to provide food for the beetle larvae which, unlike the adult beetles, have strong, hardened mandibles and, with the aid of mutualistic cellulose-digesting bacteria in the gut, are capable of dealing with the plant fibres which constitute much of

与成虫不同，幼虫的颚硬化，强而有力，加上肠道中互利共生细菌相助，故能消化粪便中的主要成分植物纤维。

Mutualism is a relationship between individuals of different species that benefits all the partners. However, this interaction may also be described as mutual exploitation. The "host sanctions effect" predicts that the hosts punish partners that cheat by receiving benefits without paying for them. Fig trees and their fig-pollinating wasps constitute a mutualistic system with a mainly one-to-one relationship.

为验证榕树与其传粉榕小蜂这一严格的、一对一的互利共生系统中是否存在寄主惩罚效应，作者于2007年在云南省西双版纳热带植物园中对雌雄同株的垂叶榕仍进行了单果放蜂实验。

Ants are the most abundant and diverse animal species in subterranean ecosystem. They establish various complicated associations with other organisms, in which some ant groups form the oldest mutualism with fungi and become famous mycophagous insects.

蚂蚁是陆地生态系统中种类和数量最为丰富的动物类群，与其他许多物种都具有广泛而复杂的联系；其中一些类群与真菌形成古老的共生关系，成为著名的菌食性昆虫。

But when we examined the structure of cultivar of D. huoshanense, endomycorhiza was founded unexpectedly. And in the wild type of D. huoshanense, fungi was also founded in its stems and leaves. So the author thought that endomycorhiza is not only located in the roots of Dendiobium plants, but also exists in other organs of plants, including stems, leaves. As plant produces seeds, mycorhiza could enter into the cells of seeds. When mature seeds germinate in media, the endomycorhiza enter into the roots of cultivar.

石斛属植物与真菌共生，根为菌根，作者在研究霍山石斛组织培养型结构时发现，组织培养苗的根部也分布有真菌，而且在野生霍山石斛的茎、叶中发现有真菌，作者因而指出，真菌并不是完全分布在根部，而是遍布于整个植物体，推测植物形成种子时，真菌进入种子，所以在组织培养时，真菌随着种子的萌发，进入植物体根部。

The origin of VA mycorrhizal symbiosis and the specialization of VAMF and pteridophytes were also discussed in this thesis.

本文还对VA菌根共生的起源和VA菌根真菌与宿主植物的专一性等问题进行了讨论。

The studies of mycorrhizal structures were helpful to understand the function mechanism of mycorrhiza. It could provide a theoretical base for further application of mycorrhiza.

对菌根共生体结构的研究有助于了解其与根功能的适应及深入探讨菌根的作用机理，为菌根菌的进一步应用提供理论基础。

Breath, muscle contraction of the buttocks; arch body, as far as possible to hold his head, right leg straight towards the ceiling (peg-leg knee in order to avoid muscle tension).

呼气，收缩臀部肌肉；拱起身体，尽量抬起头来，右腿伸直朝向天花板（膝微屈，以避免肌肉紧张）。

The cost of moving grain food products was unchanged from May, but year over year are up 8%.

粮食产品的运输费用与5月份相比没有变化，但却比去年同期高8％。