使集体化

Often clans collectivized trading routes to gain a monopoly on a certain type of trade.

通常家族都会使贸易路线集体化，这样便可获得某种贸易的垄断权。

Because of the low efficiency of economy collectivization, collective property rights can"t last for a long time and central government has to communicate with community and peasants. Rural community collective property rights become subjective through balancing benefits by formal or informal trading. With the changes of political and economical environment, the contradiction of rural community property rights between fair and efficiency become more and more serious. Collective lands and collective enterprises advance to privatization gradually. There are two kinds of country collective property rights in the history of its evolution, one offer community common good and the other satisfy peasants" private demand. The collective property rights institution improvement brings efficiency because it privatizes the latter. Because of the limit of industrialization and civilization, land is still the last social welfare of peasants, so rural community must attain the collective property rights to control the pressure of population. Also community has to get money from collective economy.

本文分析的思路是；由于制度变迁的&路径依赖&，农村社区之间的利益分配边界在解放以后得以保持并在集体化过程中得到加强，为社区获得排他性集体产权奠定了基础；由于国家对农村经济的集体化效率极低而不可能长期维持，国家不得不与社区和农民对话，通过正式或非正式的交易平衡多方利益，社区集体产权获得实质性内容；随着政治、经济等环境的不断变化，社区集体产权公平与效率之间的矛盾同益明显，集体土地和集体企业逐渐朝私有化的方向发展；从农村社区集体产权制度变迁的历史来看，集体产权实际上包含两种形式：提供社区公共物品和满足社区农民个人需求，每一次集体产权的制度创新，都是使后者&私有化&而提高了集体经济的效率；但是，受我国工业化和城市化进程缓慢的制约，土地依然是农民最后的生存保障，农村社区必须保持对土地的集体产权以调节人口变化对土地的压力，社区组织行使职能也必须有一定的集体经济提供资金支持。

This is especially true in the countryside, where the mass collectivisation during Mao's Great Leap Forward of half a century ago left farmland "collectively" owned.

这一问题在农村更为突出。半个世纪前，在毛泽东的大跃进时期，集体化使农民&集体&拥有土地。

He was let out, but the memory of his interrogations (blinded with a bright lamp, wrists slammed in the door) and family stories of the famine caused by collectivisation in one of Russia's most fertile regions stayed with Mr Gorbachev for life.

虽然后来得到释放，他还是经常会向家人讲起在刺眼的强灯下经受审讯，遭受用门板夹手腕等刑罚的痛苦经历。长辈们也常常会谈及过去那些饥荒年代的往事。农村集体化运动在俄国最肥沃地区造成了这场饥荒。这些都给年幼戈尔巴乔夫留下了深深的印象，使他一生都难以忘却。

He was let out, but the memory of his interrogations (blinded with a bright lamp, wrists slammed in the door) and family stories of the famine caused by collectivisation in one of Russia's most fertile regions stayed with Mr Gorbachev for life.

虽然后来得到释放，他还是经常会向家人讲起在刺眼的强灯下经受审讯，遭受用门板夹手腕等刑罚的痛苦经历。长辈们也常常会谈及过去那些饥荒年代的往事。农村集体化运动在俄国最肥沃的地区造成了这场饥荒。这些都给年幼戈尔巴乔夫留下了深深的印记，使他一生都难以忘却。

But we don't care about Battlegrounds.

但我们并不在乎沙场中的显露。

Ah! don't mention it, the butcher's shop is a horror.

啊！不用提了。提到肉，真是糟透了。