中世纪

Years after the demise of the Western Roman Empire, the whole of Europe into the Middle Ages.

文化 我们首先简述一下在中世纪地中海贸易变迁的情况。476年西罗马帝国灭亡后，整个欧洲进入中世纪。

Therefore, through analysing and studying Bonaventure's thoughts and his place in the history of medieval philosophy, our study of medieval theology and philosophy will not only be enriched and improved, but also Thomas Aquina's theology and philosophy deeply understood and surveyed again.

因此，从理论上分析与研究波纳文图拉在中世纪神哲学史上的地位和他思想的内容、特质，不但会丰富和促进国内中世纪思想的研究，也会促使我们更加深入地了解和重新审视托马斯·阿奎那的神哲学思想。

The introduction first briefly reviews Western Europe\'s universal order of "recht" in middle ages: As independent political units, the city, the manor, the church parish, the ligeance and so on were set in a rank order, the relations between each rank were established in legal form, empire represented the highest rank, and simultaneously played an arbitrator\'s role, was the arbitrator of political units subordinated to the emperor. All of these ranks were placed in natural order created by God, thus, the Christianity religious doctrine had provided the final validity for the universal legal orders; then the symbiotic of the political evolution and the legal transformation will be discussed. Western jurisprudence resided in the Church during the middle Ages, after entering into modern era, resorted to the state."State" instead of "empire" became the basic concept of modem law, and new order of "recht" was bound to make legitimate argumentation for the nation; finally, the background and sketches of this article is explained. It will trace and analyze intrinsic evolution of the idea of legal order in the background of concrete politics--especially the geopolitics, inspects how the different nation-states split up from universal Christianly world and obtain their independence, inspecting differences of respective national path, the fit or unfit quality and the success or failure in this process.

导论首先简要回顾西欧中世纪大一统的法权秩序：作为独立政治单元的各城市、庄园、教区、领地等被镶嵌在一个等级秩序中，各个等级之间以法律的形式来确立相互之间的关系，帝国代表最高等级，同时扮演仲裁人的角色，是臣属其下的各个政治单元之间的仲裁者，而帝国等级又被安置在上帝创造的自然秩序中，因而，是基督教教义为大一统的法权秩序提供了最终的合法性；接着指出西欧政治演变与法权变革的共生性：西方法学在中世纪寄身于教会之中，进入近代以后则投靠了国家，&国家&代替&帝国&，成为近代法学构造的基本概念，新的法权秩序必然围绕民族国家展开；最后说明本文的论述方式和基本思路：本文将在具体的政治——特别是地缘政治——的背景中，追踪和解析法权观念的内在演变，由此进一步****不同民族国家内、异质的法权秩序如何从过去大一统的世界中分化剥离并获得独立，并试图检讨这一过程中不同民族道路的差异、优劣和得失。

Earlier medieval notation had no way to specify rhythm, although neumatic notations gave clear phrasing ideas, ahd somewhat later notations indicated rhymic modes.

据推测，在中世纪初期谱子上的音乐可能是使用合唱谱子的单声部演唱和合唱，并没有标记器乐如何演奏。，虽然早期纽姆谱有着清晰的分句概念，并且稍后还能标示出韵诗，可是早期的中世纪乐谱仍然都没有详尽地记录节奏。

Morning go to middle ages general art city - Siena,when 13 centuries is one of Italian most prosperous autonomous city-states,visit* Saint bright church,* the saintess praises Germany family,the square all around historic building the Lin,* main church.

上午驱车前往有如中世纪一般的艺术古城－西艾纳，古城洋溢著浓厚的中世纪息，十三世纪时是义大利最繁荣的自治城邦之一，参观●圣道明教堂、●圣女嘉德琳之家、田园广场四周古建筑、●主教堂等。

Then it was that the great mercantile powers of Spain, France, Holland,and Britain emerged from the combinations of feudal baronies that had kept the Middle Ages in a state of local and constant warfare; that Protestant reformers like Martin Luther and John Calvin finally broke the authority of the medieval chur-state that had dominated Eurpoe since the fall of Rome; that the spirit of inquiry and enjoyment of the senses aroused man to his greatest age of art and learning.

当时，封建贵胄联合——这种联合曾使中世纪不断处于局部的战火动乱之中——促使西班牙、法国、荷兰和英国出现强大的重商力量；诸如马丁。路德和约翰。加尔文等新教改革者最终打破了自罗马失陷以来就始终占据欧洲统治地位的中世纪政教合一的体制；探索精神和感官享受唤醒了人们，使人攀上了艺术和学术的最伟大时期。

In art manifestation, we may conclude several kinds of styles interweaving mutually. Besides the reappearance of medieval esthetics, the extremely profound naturalism initiated by Pre-Raphaelites, the inspiration of classical sculpture and Italian Renaissance art, as well as the aestheticism occurred in fin-du-siècle, those make Victorian medieval love painting graceful, sensual, sentimental, and most, exclusively unique.

在表现形式上，可归纳出几种常见的风格互为交织，除了中世纪美学的再现之外，拉斐尔前派画家们所倡导的自然主义影响极为深远，加上古典雕刻及义大利文艺复兴的启发，以及世纪末唯美主义的感染，使得维多利亚时代的这些「中世纪之爱」作品，凭添许多抒情、优雅、感官的怀古情调，为十九世纪的英国绘画创造了一种专属的独特风貌。

The nunneries of the Western Europe in the middle age was the monastic community which was tied by the religion .Also it was a special view which rooted in European cultural soil of the Middle Ages.

中世纪西欧的修女院是女性以信仰为纽带联结在一起的修道团体，也是植根于中世纪欧洲文化土壤中的一道独特景观。

The Roman de Fauvel is a satire on abuses in the medieval church, and is filled with medieval motets, lais, rondeaux and other new secular forms.

Roman de Fauvel这首长诗是对中世纪教会恶习（on abuses in the medieval church）的讽刺，这篇著作中充满着中世纪经文歌，lai，十三行诗和其他一些新的世俗体裁。

The theme of "Medieval Love Painting" comes from mostly the medieval poetry, the ballad, the legend, the Renaissance literature and the contemporary romantic poem taking the Middle Ages as the background.

中世纪之爱」的题材多半来自中古诗歌、民谣、传奇文学、或以中世纪为背景的文艺复兴文学和当代浪漫诗。

For a big chunk of credit-card losses; the number of filings (and thus charge-off rates) would be rising again, whether

年美国个人破产法的一个改动使得破产登记急速下降，而后引起了信用卡大规模的亏损。

Eph. 4:23 And that you be renewed in the spirit of your mind

弗四23 而在你们心思的灵里得以更新