中世纪

It did not grow up spontaneously in the Middle Ages; it was bequeathed in a text of porphyry's "Isagoge", a text that seemed simple and innocent, though somewhat obscure, but one which force of circumstances made the necessary starting-point of the earliest medieval speculations about the Universals.

它没有长大自发在中世纪，它留下的文字斑岩的" Isagoge "的文字，似乎简单，无辜的，尽管有些模糊，但这种力量的情况下作出必要的起点最早的中世纪猜测的共性。

By comparison with the England parliament, the thesis tries to give a preliminary study of the Germany Landtag, and to analyze and discuss its type of organization、structure、function、historical limitations. I think that my studies will contribute our knowledge and understandings about Germany history from the Later Middle ages to the Early Modern to that epoch.

本文旨在通过对中世纪晚期德意志政治、经济及社会结构的分析，与英、法议会相比较，对德意志邦国议会的组织形式、结构功能、历史局限作一粗浅的探讨，以期对中世纪晚期至近代早期的德意志历史有更深入的认识和理解。

The introduction first briefly reviews Western Europe\'s universal order of "recht" in middle ages: As independent political units, the city, the manor, the church parish, the ligeance and so on were set in a rank order, the relations between each rank were established in legal form, empire represented the highest rank, and simultaneously played an arbitrator\'s role, was the arbitrator of political units subordinated to the emperor. All of these ranks were placed in natural order created by God, thus, the Christianity religious doctrine had provided the final validity for the universal legal orders; then the symbiotic of the political evolution and the legal transformation will be discussed. Western jurisprudence resided in the Church during the middle Ages, after entering into modern era, resorted to the state."State" instead of "empire" became the basic concept of modem law, and new order of "recht" was bound to make legitimate argumentation for the nation; finally, the background and sketches of this article is explained. It will trace and analyze intrinsic evolution of the idea of legal order in the background of concrete politics--especially the geopolitics, inspects how the different nation-states split up from universal Christianly world and obtain their independence, inspecting differences of respective national path, the fit or unfit quality and the success or failure in this process.

导论首先简要回顾西欧中世纪大一统的法权秩序：作为独立政治单元的各城市、庄园、教区、领地等被镶嵌在一个等级秩序中，各个等级之间以法律的形式来确立相互之间的关系，帝国代表最高等级，同时扮演仲裁人的角色，是臣属其下的各个政治单元之间的仲裁者，而帝国等级又被安置在上帝创造的自然秩序中，因而，是基督教教义为大一统的法权秩序提供了最终的合法性；接着指出西欧政治演变与法权变革的共生性：西方法学在中世纪寄身于教会之中，进入近代以后则投靠了国家，"国家"代替"帝国"，成为近代法学构造的基本概念，新的法权秩序必然围绕民族国家展开；最后说明本文的论述方式和基本思路：本文将在具体的政治——特别是地缘政治——的背景中，追踪和解析法权观念的内在演变，由此进一步****不同民族国家内、异质的法权秩序如何从过去大一统的世界中分化剥离并获得独立，并试图检讨这一过程中不同民族道路的差异、优劣和得失。

Limited monarchy was an important political phenomenon and a legal idea in Medieval England.

有限王权是中世纪英国一个重要的政治现象，它不仅体现在理论阐述上，更体现在中世纪的政治实践中。

Because of the importance of religion in the medieval period, we wanted to ensure that religion had a significant role to play in Medieval 2 without creating something complicated that the player had to micromanage.

因为宗教在中世纪时期的重要性，我们想确保宗教在中世纪2中有重要的作用，却不会带来一些让玩家要去微控的复杂的东西。

Arguments and evidence cited against a miraculous origin of the shroud images include a letter from a medieval bishop to the Avignon pope claiming personal knowledge that the image was cleverly painted to gain money from pilgrims; radiocarbon tests in 1988 that yielded a medieval timeframe for the cloths fabrication; and analysis of the image by microscopist Walter McCrone, who concluded ordinary pigments were used.

争论和证据却与裹尸布的神奇起源相反，包括一封中世纪的主教写给教宗阿维尼翁的信，声称肖像是有人运用容貌知识聪明地印上去，为了从朝圣者身上获得金钱；1988年，碳的放射性同位元素测试得出这是一块中世纪时期制造的伪造物；分析肖像的显射镜技术人员沃尔特指出，这只是使用了一种平常的颜料。

During the early medieval period there was no method to notate rhythm, and thus the rhythmical practice of this early music is subject to heated debate among scholars.

在中世纪的早期是没有方法来记录音符节奏的，并且中世纪早期对记录音乐节奏的实践受学者间激烈的讨论支配。

We can't deny that superstition, poverty, obscuration, graness all exist in middle ages, but can we absolutely deny the culture heritages during that time?

当然，我们不否认在中世纪确实存在着迷信、贫困、蒙昧、暗淡等因素，但我们是否就可以全盘否定中世纪的文化遗产呢？

It is succeeded by serfdom in the middle ages, and wage- labor in the more recent period.

继之而来的是中世纪的农奴制和近代的雇佣劳动制。在中世纪社会里，家奴制是根深蒂固的。

In the Late Middle Ages sumptuary laws were instituted as a way for the nobility to cap the conspicuous consumption of the prosperous bourgeoisie of medi cities , and they continued to be used for these purposes well into the seventeenth century.

在中世纪末期，禁奢法伪贵族开创了一种方式，遮掩了中世纪城市贵族奢侈的消费。为了这些目的，他们继续使用禁奢法延续到17世纪。

The split between the two groups can hardly be papered over.

这两个团体间的分歧难以掩饰。

This approach not only encourages a greater number of responses, but minimizes the likelihood of stale groupthink.

这种做法不仅鼓励了更多的反应，而且减少跟风的可能性。